PV Module

Quick Facts

Module Anatomy

Power, voltage, and current values printed on a module’s nameplate are all measured at Standard Test Conditions — the physical layers below are what actually deliver that rated output in the field.

• Glass cover (3.2 mm tempered) — UV protection.
• EVA encapsulant — adheres glass to cells.
• PV cells — silicon wafers with conductive grid.
• Back encapsulant — EVA or POE.
• Back sheet (monofacial) or glass back (bifacial).
• Aluminum frame — structural support.
• Junction box — bypass diodes + MC4 connectors.

Cell Technologies (2024)

PERC (Passivated Emitter Rear Cell)

• Dominant 2018–2022.
• 21–22% efficiency.
• LID 1.5–2%.
• Phasing out in favor of TOPCon.

TOPCon (Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact)

• Dominant 2023+.
• 22–23% efficiency.
• Lower LID (<0.5%).
• Better bifaciality (75–85%).
• Improved high-temp behavior.

HJT (Heterojunction Technology)

• Premium tier.
• 22–24% efficiency.
• Lowest LID (<0.3%).
• Best high-temp performance.
• Highest cost (~5–10% premium over TOPCon).

Other (niche)

• IBC (Interdigitated Back Contact): SunPower Maxeon, 22%.
• Tandem perovskite: emerging, lab efficiency 30%+.
• CdTe (First Solar): 18–19%, thin-film, low-temp benefit.

Form Factors

Major Manufacturers (2024)

Permitting & Standards

• NEC 690.4(B): All modules must be listed (UL 1703 or UL 61730).
• IEC 61215: Crystalline module performance.
• IEC 61730: Module safety.
• UL 1703 / UL 61730: North America listing.
• IS 14286: India PV module standard.
• ALMM: India approved list for subsidized projects.

Key Takeaways

• Modern PV modules are 400–650 W, 19–24% efficient, using PERC/TOPCon/HJT crystalline silicon.
• TOPCon dominates 2024+ utility-scale; HJT premium for residential and high-temperature climates.
• Bifacial modules add 5–25% rear-side gain in ground-mount installations.
• Verify UL 1703/61730 (US) or IS 14286 (India) listing before specifying.
• For Indian subsidized projects, confirm ALMM listing on the MNRE portal.

Related Reading

A module’s nameplate power and bifacial gain are only starting inputs — how they translate into an 8,760-hour energy forecast is covered in PV Yield Simulation Software: The Bankable Yield 5 (2026), which walks through the tools that turn cell-level specs into a bankable yield number. On the structural side, the module weights and wind-exposed surface area referenced above (22–32 kg per panel, depending on glass-glass vs. glass-backsheet construction) are exactly what racking and foundation calculations have to absorb; see ASCE 7-22 Wind Load for Solar Rooftops — A Designer’s Reading for how that load path is sized. For ground-mount arrays specifically, where bifacial modules do most of their rear-side gain, our Solar Ground Mount Design service covers the racking and tilt decisions that go with module selection.