Definition
A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged assembly of solar cells that converts sunlight directly to DC electricity. Modern modules are 400–650 W, use crystalline silicon (PERC, TOPCon, HJT), and are produced by Longi, Jinko, Trina, Canadian Solar, Q CELLS, and others.
Quick Facts
| Field | Detail |
|---|---|
| Term | PV Module / Solar Panel |
| Category | Solar Components |
| Standards | IEC 61215, IEC 61730, UL 1703, UL 61730, IS 14286 |
| Typical Power | 400–650 W (commercial-grade c-Si) |
| Efficiency | 19–24% |
| Difficulty Level | Beginner |
Module Anatomy
- Glass cover (3.2 mm tempered) — UV protection.
- EVA encapsulant — adheres glass to cells.
- PV cells — silicon wafers with conductive grid.
- Back encapsulant — EVA or POE.
- Back sheet (monofacial) or glass back (bifacial).
- Aluminum frame — structural support.
- Junction box — bypass diodes + MC4 connectors.
Cell Technologies (2024)
PERC (Passivated Emitter Rear Cell)
- Dominant 2018–2022.
- 21–22% efficiency.
- LID 1.5–2%.
- Phasing out in favor of TOPCon.
TOPCon (Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact)
- Dominant 2023+.
- 22–23% efficiency.
- Lower LID (<0.5%).
- Better bifaciality (75–85%).
- Improved high-temp behavior.
HJT (Heterojunction Technology)
- Premium tier.
- 22–24% efficiency.
- Lowest LID (<0.3%).
- Best high-temp performance.
- Highest cost (~5–10% premium over TOPCon).
Other (niche)
- IBC (Interdigitated Back Contact): SunPower Maxeon, 22%.
- Tandem perovskite: emerging, lab efficiency 30%+.
- CdTe (First Solar): 18–19%, thin-film, low-temp benefit.
Form Factors
| Form | Cell count | Module power (TOPCon, 2024) |
|---|---|---|
| 60-cell full | 60 | 380–420 W |
| 72-cell full | 72 | 460–510 W |
| 60-cell half | 120 | 410–450 W |
| 72-cell half | 144 | 540–580 W |
| Bifacial 72-cell | 144 | 545–620 W |
| Large-format (210 mm) | 110–135 | 600–660 W |
Major Manufacturers (2024)
| Brand | Country | Tier | Specialty |
|---|---|---|---|
| Longi | China | Tier 1 | Volume leader, TOPCon |
| Jinko | China | Tier 1 | TOPCon volume |
| Trina | China | Tier 1 | Bifacial leader |
| Canadian Solar | Canada/China | Tier 1 | US market focus |
| JA Solar | China | Tier 1 | Diversified |
| Q CELLS | Korea/Germany | Tier 1 | Premium residential |
| REC | Norway/Singapore | Tier 1 | HJT |
| Adani | India | Tier 1 | India market |
| Waaree | India | Tier 1 | India market |
| Goldi Solar | India | Emerging | ALMM-listed |
Permitting & Standards
- NEC 690.4(B): All modules must be listed (UL 1703 or UL 61730).
- IEC 61215: Crystalline module performance.
- IEC 61730: Module safety.
- UL 1703 / UL 61730: North America listing.
- IS 14286: India PV module standard.
- ALMM: India approved list for subsidized projects.
Key Takeaways
- Modern PV modules are 400–650 W, 19–24% efficient, using PERC/TOPCon/HJT crystalline silicon.
- TOPCon dominates 2024+ utility-scale; HJT premium for residential and high-temperature climates.
- Bifacial modules add 5–25% rear-side gain in ground-mount installations.
- Verify UL 1703/61730 (US) or IS 14286 (India) listing before specifying.
- For Indian subsidized projects, confirm ALMM listing on the MNRE portal.
Frequently Asked Questions
10 commonly searched questions about PV Module.
What is a PV module?
A packaged solar panel — multiple PV cells wired together in a glass-and-aluminum frame with junction box and connectors. Converts sunlight to DC electricity. Power: 400–650 W typical for modern commercial modules.
What's the difference between PERC, TOPCon, and HJT?
All are c-Si cell architectures. PERC: dominant 2018–2022, ~21–22% efficient. TOPCon (Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact): dominant 2023+, ~22–23% efficient, better high-temp performance. HJT (Heterojunction): premium, ~22–24% efficient, lowest degradation.
What's a typical module efficiency?
Modern 60-cell PERC: 20–21%. Modern 72-cell TOPCon: 21.5–22.5%. Modern half-cell bifacial TOPCon: 22–23%. HJT: 23–24%. Tandem perovskite (emerging): 25%+ in prototypes.
What's the warranty?
Product warranty: 12–25 years. Power warranty (linear degradation): year 1 ≥ 98%, year 25 ≥ 80–85% (TOPCon, HJT). Bifacial premium modules: ≥ 87% at year 25.
Which manufacturer is best?
Tier 1 manufacturers (Bloomberg classification): Longi, Jinko, Trina, Canadian Solar, JA Solar, Q CELLS, REC, Adani, Waaree, Goldi Solar. Selection based on price, performance, warranty, and bankability.
How heavy is a 400 W module?
Approximately 22–25 kg (50–55 lb) for a 2.0 m² 400 W module. Heavier for bifacial glass-glass (28–32 kg).
What is module degradation?
Loss of power output over time. Linear: 0.40–0.55%/yr for premium TOPCon/HJT; 0.5–0.7%/yr standard PERC. Initial year-1 LID: 1.5–2% for standard PERC; <0.5% for n-type TOPCon and HJT.
Is bifacial standard?
Yes, increasingly. 80%+ of 2024 utility-scale projects use bifacial modules. Residential adoption growing but still <50%.
What's the recycling situation?
Module recycling infrastructure is growing. Major recyclers: SolarCycle, Veolia, First Solar (CdTe). End-of-life management is increasingly regulated (EU PV Waste Directive, California SB 489).
Do I need to verify ALMM in India?
Yes, for grid-tied projects with government subsidies. ALMM (Approved List of Models and Manufacturers) lists approved modules from MNRE-registered manufacturers.
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